Type   also   can   be   used   effectively   to   relieve grayness. To breakup gray areas in a long story, you can set  selected  paragraphs  in  boldface  type,  if  used sparingly.  Another  method  of  breaking  up  long  gray stories is to use boldface subheads set about two points larger than your body type size. A third method of using type  to  break  up  grayness  is  to  use  boldface,  all-cap lead-ins. This method is particularly effective in matter set in wider measures. In two-column matter, the first three to five words of the paragraph containing a lead-in can be set in boldface and all caps, and in one-column matter, the first one to three words of the paragraph can be set in boldface and all caps. The paragraphs to be set in any of these boldfaced methods should be the paragraphs that introduce anew element into the story or ones that contain information of more than usual interest. Two paragraphs using the same boldfaced method should not be run side by side because they tend to cancel each other out. Note that the use  of  boldface  type  is  not  favored  by  the  editors  of contemporary  newspapers  as  much  as  by  the  editors with  traditional  leanings.  (More  about  traditional  and contemporary  designs  will  be  presented  later  in  this chapter.) “Modem” editors rely on the use of different design concepts to eliminate large gray areas on their pages and consequently have little use for boldface type, except possibly as subheads. Other  useful  devices  in  breaking  up  grayness  are initial  letters  (mentioned  earlier  in  this  chapter),  kickers and   hammerheads   (covered   in   Chapter   9)   and sandwiches. A  sandwich  is  a  device  for  handling  “reefers” (references to a related story on another page). It is a small,  sideless  box  made  with  the  same  rule  used  for regular boxes. The reefer type in the sandwich should be set in boldface and not be indented. No headline is needed and it should be brief, containing not more than two or three lines. The sandwich should be placed about 2 1/2 inches deep into the story. Presumably, this practice gives the reader enough time to become interested enough in the subject being addressed to want the related information being  offered.  The  use  of  the  sandwich  assumes  the reader will immediately turn to the related story, read it and then return to the original story and continue reading below the sandwich. Special effects can be obtained with special art, such as boxes and ornaments (art borders around individual stories,  announcements  and  ads  or  the  entire  page). These   devices   are   also   effective   gray   breakers   but should be used sparingly, so their use does not create a cluttered effect. In using boxes, you can indent a story on all sides and use a box of white space all around the 8-24 story. You can also indent on all sides of a story and then use  a  ruled  box.  Dingbats,  once  in  vogue,  are  now considered  old-fashioned  and  are  shunned  by  modem editors.  White  space  provides  margins  to  frame  your page.  Side  margins  should  be  the  same  width,  but bottom margins should be about one-fourth wider than your top margins to give your page a lifted look White space  is  also  used  to  give  breathing  room  around headlines  and  pictures  in  much  the  same  manner  as margins frame the page. However, you should make an effort to avoid the appearance of trapped white space. White space should run to the outside of the page. RULES Rules  are  commonly  used  typographic  devices  in newspaper   makeup.   Properly   used,   they   separate unrelated items and unite related ones. The two types of rules used are the column rule and the cutoff rule. Column Rule The column rule is a vertical, thin line that runs from the  top  to  the  bottom  of  a  newspaper  page.  Use  the column rule to separate columns of type and to separate unrelated items, such as photographs and stories, from the rest of the page. Part of a column can be deleted to indicate that the items joined are related Cutoff Rule A cutoff rule is a horizontal, thin line that runs across one or more columns of a newspaper page, depending on the width of the items to be separated or united. A cutoff rule is used to separate unrelated items, such as boxes,  photographs,  multicolumn  headlines  and advertisements, from the rest of the page. A cutoff rule helps the reader’s eye turn the corner from where a story ends  in  one  column  to  where  it  begins  in  the  next column, except when the story wraps from the bottom of a page. Then no cutoff rule is needed ADDITIONAL MAKEUP CONSIDERATIONS Newspapers  have  other  elements  that  usually appear in each issue and other makeup devices that are used  to  design  newspaper  pages.  Some  of  these  are described in the following text. Widows Avoid  having  widows  at  the  tops  of  columns.  A widow  is  an  incomplete  line,  as  one  that  ends  a